DRAFT: THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN PREPARING YOUTH WITH DISABILITIES FOR POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT



Sheryl Burgstahler, Ph. D., Director, DO-IT; Co-Director, AccessIT; and Affiliate Associate Professor,
University of Washington


INTRODUCTION

Access to electronic and information technology has the potential to promote positive postsecondary academic and career outcomes for students with disabilities. However, this potential will not be realized unless stakeholders become more knowledgeable about appropriate uses of technology, secure funding, and work together to maximize the independence, participation and productivity of students with disabilities as they find their individual pathways to college, careers, and self-determined lives. This paper explores the role technology can play in helping students with disabilities successfully transition to postsecondary studies and employment. It defines terms; provides examples of electronic and information technologies and their applications in precollege and postsecondary education and employment; summarizes legal issues that apply to technology access for students with disabilities in precollege, postsecondary, and employment settings; explores promising practices; and lists topics for future research. Ultimately, assuring that all of the educational and employment opportunities that technology provides are accessible to everyone will strengthen our economy and promote equal opportunities in all adult life activities.

ACCESS TO TECHNOLOGY FOR PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES
Today, technology has become essential in almost every educational, employment, community, and recreational environment. Access to electronic and information technologies can help students with a wide range of abilities and disabilities prepare for and succeed in adult life. Specifically, for people with disabilities, such access has the potential to maximize independence, productivity and participation in academic programs and employment. In addition, for those who have the interest and aptitude, advanced technology skills can open doors to high tech career fields that were once unavailable to people with disabilities. 
Although the benefits of technology may be even greater for people with disabilities than for people without disabilities (Anderson-Inman, Knox-Quinn, & Szymnski, 1999; Blackhurst, Lahm, Harrision, & Chandler, 1999; DO-IT, 2001; Goldberg & O'Neill, 2000; Hasselbrino & Glaser, 2000; Success stories, 2002), individuals with disabilities are less than half as likely as their non-disabled counterparts to own a computer, and they are about one-quarter as likely to use the Internet (Kaye, 2000). In addition, the design of many Web pages, instructional software programs, productivity tools, telecommunications products, and other electronic and information technologies create access barriers for individuals with disabilities (Burgstahler, 2002; Schmetzke, 2001). For example, Web pages that do not include text alternatives that can be read by speech and Braille output systems limit information access by a student who is blind; the content of a videotape that does not have captions is inaccessible to a viewer who is 
deaf; and office equipment that cannot be operated from a seated position is inaccessible to an employee who uses a wheelchair for mobility.
Taking advantage of the power that technology offers in improving the postsecondary outcomes for individuals with disabilities is critically important because people with disabilities today experience far less career success than their non-disabled peers (Benz, Doren, & Yovanoff, 1998; Butterworth, 1998; DeLoach, 1992; Gilson, 1996; McNeil, 1997, 2000; National Council on Disability, 2000; National Organization on Disability, 1998; Phelps & Hanley-Maxwell, 1997; Wagner & Blackorby, 1996). However, these differences in achievement diminish between individuals as they gain more education. For example, the employment rate for individuals with disabilities who do not complete high school is 15.6%; for those who complete high school it is 30.2%; for those with some postsecondary education it is 45.1%; and for those with four years of college it is 50.3% (Yelin & Katz, 1994a, 1994b). Clearly, technology access that leads to greater success in postsecondary education has the potential to improve career outcomes for people with disabilities. 
Today, individuals with disabilities are significantly underrepresented in postsecondary education and significantly fewer students with disabilities eventually earn degrees than students without disabilities (Horn & Berktold, 1999; National Council on Disability, 2000). The largest and fastest growing reported disability among freshmen who have disabilities is learning disability – 40.4% in 2000 as compared to 16.1% in 1988 (Henderson, 2001). Percentages of students with disabilities reporting other types of disabilities are 16.1% blindness or partial sight, 15.4% health-related impairments, 8.6% hearing impairments, 7.1% orthopedic impairments, 2.9% speech impairments, and 16.9% other impairments (Henderson). Even those who complete postsecondary studies are likely to have fewer work-based learning experiences than those who do not have disabilities. Lack of job skills and related experiences before graduation create additional barriers to employment for people with disabilities (Benz, Doren, & Yovanoff, 
1998; Benz, Yovanoff, & Doren, 1997; Blackorby & Wagner, 1996; Luecking & Fabian, 2000; National Council on Disability, 2000; National Council on Disability and Social Security Administration, 2000; Phelps & Hanley-Maxwell, 1997; Unger, Wehman, Yasuda, Campbell, & Green, 2001). The poor employment figures for people with disabilities coupled with the positive impact of postsecondary education and work-related experiences makes increasing their success in these activities an important goal. The cost of failure to reach this goal, to these individuals and to society, is high (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996; Gajar, 1998; Reskin & Roos, 1990; Stodden, 1998; Stodden & Dowrick, 2000; Wagner & Blackorby, 1996; Yelin & Katz, 1994a, 1994b). 
High tech careers are particularly accessible to individuals with disabilities because of the combined effect of the increasing use of electronic and information technologies and of the advancements in assistive technology that provide access to computers and other electronic equipment for people with a variety of disabilities (Closing The Gap, 2001; Smith & Jones, 1999). A bachelor’s degree or higher is a prerequisite for many of these challenging careers (Price-Ellingstad & Berry, 1999/2000). Although few students with disabilities pursue high tech postsecondary programs and careers and the attrition rate is high (Malcom & Matyas, 1991; National Science Foundation, 2000; Office of Disability Employment Policy, 2001), those who succeed in these fields demonstrate that opportunities do exist for people with disabilities who have successfully overcome the barriers imposed by facilities, electronic and information technology, inadequate academic preparation, lack of role models, and negative attitudes 
(Blumenkopf, Stern, Swanson, & Wohler, 1996; Burgstahler, 1993-2001, 2001; DO-IT, 2001; Heidare, 1996; National Science Foundation, 1989; Presidential Task Force, 1999; Stern & Summers, 1995; Stevens, Steele, Jutai, Kalnins, Bortolussi, & Biggar, 1996; Stodden, 1998). 
In order for students with disabilities to pursue postsecondary academic and career options, they must have access to the high tech tools available to their nondisabled peers. These include computers, scientific equipment, Web sites, distance learning options, instructional software, scientific equipment, and all other electronic and information technologies used by students in postsecondary institutions. This requires that barriers to these tools and resources be removed and appropriate assistive technology be readily available (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2000a, 2000b; Schmetzke, 2001; Waddell, 1999). 
Today, the full potential of using technology to prepare youth with disabilities for postsecondary education is not being realized (National Council on Disability & Social Security Administration, 2000). Funding is reported as the top barrier by providers and policy experts (National Council on Disability, 2000). Consumers identify the two biggest barriers to be lack of knowledge of stakeholders about appropriate assistive technology and lack of funding to purchase assistive technology (Fichten, Barile, & Asuncion, 1999; National Council on Disability). Many graduates of teacher education programs are not adequately prepared in the general use of computer technology and in classroom applications (Anderson & Pelch-Hogan, 2001; Hasselbring & Glasser, 2000; National Center for Educational Statistics, 2000a, 2000b; National Council on Disability). In addition, as reported by the National Council on Disability (p. 25), "the rapid acquisition of educational technology has not sufficiently addressed the needs of 
students with disabilities. Access for students with disabilities is just beginning to be identified as an important factor when purchasing educational technology. Barriers to the use of advanced telecommunications for students with disabilities in public schools include special education teachers not sufficiently trained to use equipment." Inadequate preparation applies to general education and computer teachers as well. As summarized by Hasselbring and Glasser (p. 118) "Lack of adequate teacher training has an especially strong impact on students with disabilities because technology is often a critical component in planning and implementing an educational program for these students." Other barriers include lack of trained professionals to evaluate assistive technology, difficulties in locating assistive technology to test by individuals with disabilities, confusion about existing laws and policies regarding assistive technology, gaps in laws and policies that fund assistive technology, and the bureaucracy 
of public programs and insurance companies (National Council on Disability).
Clearly, much work needs to be done before the full potential of today's technology for students with disabilities is realized. However, it is easier to agree on the problems that exist than the interventions that will overcome them. Most would agree, however that the situation would be much improved if the following conditions were assured.
- All individuals with disabilities have access to technology that promotes positive postsecondary and career outcomes. 
- People with disabilities learn to use technology in ways that contribute to positive postsecondary academic and career outcomes and self-determined lives.
- There is a seamless transition of availability of technology for all people with disabilities as they move from K-12 to postsecondary to career environments.
- The application of universal design principles and the provision of assistive technology are both addressed in academic and employment computing environments.
Next, this paper defines terminology related to the use of technology by people with disabilities. Then, it looks at what specific roles technology can play in preparing young people with disabilities for postsecondary education and employment and legal issues in precollege education, postsecondary academic, and employment settings are discussed. After that, some of the issues that must be addressed in order for young people with disabilities to gain the full benefits that technology has to offer as they transition from precollege education to postsecondary education and employment are summarized. Finally, implications and recommendations are suggested.
      
TERMINOLOGY

Throughout this paper, “technology” includes electronic and information technology and assistive technology that provides access to electronic and information technology. “Information technology” is defined as “any equipment or interconnected system or subsystem of equipment, that is used in the automatic acquisition, storage, manipulation, management, movement, control, display, switching, interchange, transmission, or reception of data or information. The term “information technology” includes computers, ancillary equipment, software, firmware and similar procedures, services (including support services), and related resources.” (Office of the Federal Register 2000, p. 80499) “Electronic technology” encompasses information technology, but also includes any equipment or interconnected system or subsystem of equipment, that is used in the creation, conversion, or duplication of data or information. Electronic technology includes telecommunications products such as telephones and office equipment such as copiers and fax machines. 
Many electronic and information technology products are designed in such a way that they are inaccessible to people with some types of disabilities. For example, a person with a visual impairment may not be able to interpret instructions if they are presented only in a visual format; a person who is deaf cannot access content if it is only presented aurally. An important term to define is “access,” as it relates to the use of computer hardware, software, and other technology. According to the National Science Foundation, “access implies the ability to find, manipulate and use information in an efficient and comprehensive manner” (Lesk, 1998). Too often even those individuals with disabilities who have a computer and Internet connection, still cannot make full use of its capabilities because of the inaccessible features of hardware and/or software (Waddell, 1999). They have technology, but do not have access to all of the benefits it delivers to others. 
“Assistive technology” is defined as “any item, piece of equipment, or system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is commonly used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.” (Technology-Related Assistance, 1988). Assistive technology enables people with disabilities to accomplish daily living tasks, assists them in communication, and provides greater access to education, employment, and recreation. It can be used to maximize physical or mental functioning and minimize the impact of a disability. Examples of assistive technology include scooters and wheelchairs, alternative automobile controls, environmental controls, prostheses, communication aids, hand splints, hearing aids, and alternative input and output devices for computers. An "assistive technology service" is defined as "any service that directly assists an individual with a disability in selection, acquisition or use of an assistive technology device" (Technology-Related 
Assistance). For this paper, only assistive technology that interfaces with electronic and information technology and related services are relevant. 
The process of creating products that are accessible to people with a wide range of abilities, disabilities, and other characteristics is called “universal design.” Universal design is defined by the Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University as “the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design.” (What is universal design?, 2002) At this Center, a team of architects, product designers, engineers, and environmental design researchers established a set of principles of universal design to provide guidance in the design of environments, communications, and products. General principles include: the design accommodates a wide range of individual preferences and abilities; the design communicates necessary information effectively, regardless of ambient conditions or the users sensory abilities; the design can be used efficiently and comfortably, and with a minimum of fatigue; and appropriate size and space is provided for approach, reach, manipulation, and use regardless of users body size, posture, or mobility. The concept of universal design has been applied to all teaching and learning activities (Bowe, 2000; Universal design for learning, 2002). In particular, when producers apply universal design principles as they create electronic and information technology, the products are more usable by everyone, including people with disabilities. They minimize the need for assistive technology and are compatible with commonly used assistive technology. Below are a few examples of accessible information and electronic technology and its benefits to students with disabilities in educational settings.
- Accessible Web pages allow students with disabilities, including those who have sensory impairments, to access information; share their work; communicate with peers, teachers, and mentors; and take advantage of distance learning options.
- Accessible instructional software (on disks, CDs or other media) and documentation allow students with disabilities to participate side-by-side with their peers in computer labs and classrooms as they complete assignments; collaborate with peers; create and view presentations, documents, spreadsheets; and actively participate in simulations and other computer-based activities.
- Accessible telephones make communication accessible to everyone, including those with mobility, visual and hearing impairments.
The following section provides examples of roles technology can play in the lives of individuals with disabilities, particularly as they relate to college and career preparation.

ROLES OF TECHNOLOGY FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

The following examples demonstrate how electronic and information technology can be used by students with disabilities and contribute to their independence, productivity, and participation in academics and careers. Specifically, technology can help them:
- Maximize independence in academic and employment tasks. Example: A student with a mobility impairment uses a hands-free keyboard and mouse to operate a computer to take class notes and complete papers rather than have an assistant write for her. 
- Participate in classroom discussions. Example: A student who cannot speak uses a computer-based communication device to deliver speeches and participate in class discussions.
- Gain access to peers, mentors, and role models. Example: In a supported Internet community, a student who is deaf uses electronic mail to chat with other teens, gain support for college and career transition from mentors, and meet role models. (Burgstahler, 1997; Burgstahler & Cronheim, 2001)
- Self-advocate. Example: A student who is deaf uses a TTY and relay service to arrange appointments regarding internship accommodations with her supervisor.
- Gain access to the full range of educational options. Example: A student who is blind and uses speech output technology fully participate in an Internet-based distance learning course that employs universal design principles to assure access to people with disabilities. 
- Succeed in work-based learning experiences. Example: A student who has no use of his hands independently operates a computer to draft and edit articles in a journalism internship at the local newspaper office.
- Secure high levels of independent living. Example: A young person who has a developmental disability uses a cell phone to maintain regular contact with care givers as he participates in community activities. Example: A teen with a mobility impairment uses a voice-controlled system to operate the television, turn lights on and off, open doors, and perform other tasks of daily life.
- Prepare for transitions to college and careers. Example: A student with a learning disability that makes it difficult for him to read uses a computer with a speech output system to explore internship and career opportunities, take self-paced career readiness and interest tests, and research the academic programs and services for students with disabilities offered at colleges of interest.
- Master academic tasks that they cannot accomplish otherwise. Example: A student with a learning disability uses a set of software tools to support her management of reading, writing and study demands in a postsecondary setting (Anderson-Inman, Knox-Quinn, & Szymanski, 1999).
- Enter high tech career fields. Example: A child who shows interest in engineering at a young age, but does not have the fine motor skills to manipulate objects, gains technical knowledge using the Internet, operates computer simulations of engineering tasks, and develops a solid foundation for college studies and a career in engineering.
- Participate in community and recreational activities. Example: An adult who is blind can privately cast his vote for President of the United States because the voting booth is designed to be accessible to everyone.

These and countless other examples demonstrate the important roles electronic and information technologies can play as young people with disabilities pursue postsecondary education and careers. First, they realize the same benefits as individuals without disabilities. Secondly, some use technology as compensatory tools, allowing them to do things that are otherwise impossible as a result of disabilities. For example, technology can provide a voice for those who cannot speak in the customary way; can allow people to “write” even though they do not have functional use of their hands; can make it possible for individuals to use the telephone even though they do not have the ability to hear. 
The following section summarizes key legislation related to technology access for people with disabilities in elementary and secondary schools, postsecondary institutions, and employment.
      
LEGISLATION

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1997, formerly called P.L. 94-142 or the Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1975) mandates that each state provide a free and appropriate education for all children, regardless of their abilities or disabilities. It requires that Individual Education Plans (IEPs) be developed for students with disabilities who meet certain criteria and that assistive technology and transition, among other things, be considered in the development of IEPs.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in programs and services that receive federal funds, which include the vast majority of educational institutions. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) reinforces and extends the requirements of Section 504 to public programs and services, regardless of whether or not they receive federal funds. Precollege programs must provide access to all children, regardless of disabilities; thus, all students with disabilities, regardless of whether they have IEPs, have a right to the same technology access that is provided to students without disabilities. For qualified students who disclose their disabilities and present appropriate documentation, postsecondary institutions must provide reasonable accommodations to assure equal access to program offerings (Frank & Wade, 1993; McCusker, 1995; West, Kregel, Getzel, Zhu, Ipsen, & Martin, 1993). Although the ADA does not specifically mention electronic 
and information technology, the United States Department of Justice clarified that the ADA applies to Internet-based resources – “Covered entities that use the Internet for communications regarding their programs, goods, or services must be prepared to offer those communications through accessible means as well” (Patrick, 1996). The ADA mandates nondiscrimination in employment as well, requiring reasonable accommodations for employees with disabilities; such accommodations may include the purchase of assistive technology. Provisions of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act of 1990, the Rehabilitation Amendments of 1992, the School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994, and the Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1998 further dictate program access and support services that must be provided to people with disabilities (Fisher & Gardner, 1999). Unfortunately, many elementary, secondary, and postsecondary educators and service providers have difficulty understanding and applying the maze of conflicting definitions, eligibility criteria, and policy implications of legislation that impacts the provision of technology access for individuals with disabilities (National Council on Disability, 2000).
Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act requires that agencies of the Federal government develop, purchase and use electronic and information technology that is accessible to individuals with disabilities. The Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board (Access Board) developed standards to which these agencies must comply (Office of the Federal Register, 2000). Even for those who are not covered entities under Section 508, the standards developed by the Access Board provide a good starting point for organizations seeking to meet their ADA obligations. They include standards for accessible desktop and portable computers; Web-based resources; video and multimedia products; software and operating systems; and self-contained, closed systems such as photocopiers and fax machines.
Although educational institutions and employers have legal obligations to provide technology access to students and employees with disabilities, barriers still prevent people with disabilities from gaining full access to technologies that can help them reach their full potential. These challenges are discussed in the next section of this paper.
      
CHALLENGES

Technology has the potential to improve the educational, career, and adult living outcomes for people with disabilities. However, this potential will not be realized unless barriers to its selection, acquisition and use are overcome. Challenges that must be addressed in order for students with disabilities to gain the full benefits of technology as they transition to college and careers include those discussed below.
Funding: Who will assure funding so that children with disabilities can gain access to empowering technology? Funding is often cited as a barrier to technology access for people with disabilities (e.g., National Council on Disability, 2000). Although the cost of technology is often lower than anticipated and funding is sometimes suggested as a constraint when issues of selection and management are actually more challenging, technology does cost money and must be paid for in some way. This issue is likely to grow increasingly important as elementary and secondary educators continue to be faced with implementing the assistive technology requirements of IDEA, as technology in general becomes more widely available as a tool for student learning, and as awareness of assistive technology becomes more widespread. Besides consideration of the overall costs, deciding who (school, government agency, insurance, family) should pay for technology under specific circumstances and who owns the technology as a person 
transitions between various levels of education and employment create additional challenges to be overcome  (National Council on Disability, 2000). Choices should be driven by both short-term and long-term needs. Besides initial purchase, questions about who is responsible for upgrades and technical support during all life stages must be answered. Funding is needed for training personnel to deliver technology services at various academic and employment levels and during transition periods, as well as for increasing technology awareness among all key stakeholders.
Awareness: How can we assure that key stakeholders have general knowledge of how technology can benefit individuals with disabilities? To be assured that good decisions will be made by IEP teams and other decision-makers, all stakeholder groups, including general and special education teachers, occupational therapists, rehabilitation counselors, policymakers, paraprofessionals, pre-service and in-service trainers, employers, interagency and community service providers, students, families, technology professionals, postsecondary disabled student services staff, and medical equipment providers need to be aware of the types of technology options available to enhance the academic and career outcomes for individuals with disabilities (Blackhurst, Lahm, Harrision, & Chandler, 1999; National Council on Disability, 2000). Individuals in these positions represent key stakeholders in the process of ensuring that students are provided with technology and support services to meet their individual needs (Blackhurst, Lahm, Harrision, & Chandler). If stakeholders are not aware of how technology can support the needs of students with disabilities, these students will not assistive technology adequately considered in the IEP process; they will not have access to the full school curriculum; they will not be provided with developmentally appropriate devices and services; they will fail to use technology effectively; and they will not become prepared to self-advocate regarding their technology needs in future stages of their lives. Because of the large number of students with learning disabilities, stakeholder knowledge of how technology can promote the success of this group in educational and employment settings is critical.
Selection: Who will select appropriate technology and provide ongoing support for students with disabilities at various levels in the educational and career preparation process? The planning and implementation of effective technology for students with disabilities requires specialized knowledge and skills regarding legislation, policies, and technology applications and products by those in decision-making and support positions. These individuals include special education teachers, occupational therapists, community service providers, students with disabilities, families, and technology professionals (Blackhurst, Lahm, Harrision, & Chandler, 1999; National Council on Disability, 2000). Increasing the knowledge and skills of these individuals regarding the availability and potential uses of technology is a critical step towards ensuring that students are provided with the tools and supports that will increase readiness and motivation as they transition to postsecondary education and employment. Service 
provides need to have the capacity to keep pace with the rapidly changing technology that can benefit students with disabilities. With the growing complexity of computing environments and number of commercially available assistive technology devices, staff at smaller institutions face special challenges in acquiring and maintaining current information about technology options and the most appropriate applications for students with disabilities. 
Anytime, Anywhere Access to Technology: How can educators and employers assure that appropriate technology is available when and where people with disabilities need it? Sometimes accessible technology is available to a student with a disability in a special education resource center or other isolated location, when it is most needed in the classroom and at home. Often technology available to students at the secondary school level does not transition with them as they pursue postsecondary education and employment. Funding and management strategies should be flexible enough to provide maximum benefit of technology access for each individual student. Coordinated education and community service systems are essential in ensuring that transfer of technology is a seamless process. This can be facilitated by the development of interagency and/or cost sharing agreements that identify specific roles and responsibilities of agencies to address the technology needs of both students with disabilities who have IEPs and 
those who do not.
Full Participation in Precollege Academic and Employment Offerings: How can educators, career services staff, and employers be better trained to understand the capabilities and accommodation needs of students with disabilities and use technology to help people with disabilities fully participate in academic and employment offerings? Sometimes technology is used in a very limited way to enhance the education of students with disabilities. For example, a computer might be available to a student in a computer lab, but not used by the student for test-taking because an individual teacher is not aware that the student can use this technology or because they are not sensitive to the need for students with disabilities to complete their work independently as they prepare for postsecondary studies and careers. Similarly, assistive technology is not always readily available to a student who might, with this technology, be able to participate in work-based learning experiences, such as a summer internship. This problem, in part, can be addressed with increased funding for assistive technology and greater awareness of the availability and potential uses of assistive technology on the part of stakeholders, including educators, careers services staff, parents, and employers (National Council on Disability, 2000; National Council on Disability and Social Security Administration, 2000).
Promotion of Self-Advocacy, Independence, and Self-Determination: How can parents, educators and service providers encourage students with disabilities to use technology to self-advocate, perform daily tasks independently, and move toward self-determined lives? Successful transition is integral to a student's realization of postsecondary education, employment, and adult living objectives. Like all other aspects of the transition process, the role of technology should be addressed in a way that maximizes the involvement of the student. Student transition plans should include self-advocacy objectives in the technology area so that students are able to articulate their technology needs to others (e.g., teachers, professors, employers) and access the training and support they need throughout their lives (Blackhurst, Lahm, Harrison, & Chandler, 1999). Ideally, by high school graduation, students with disabilities are experts on the types of technology that serve them best, the technical support requirements of 
their systems, and resources available to them.
Peer and Mentor Support: How can students with disabilities employ technology to gain access to meaningful peer and mentoring relationships on the Internet? Potential role models who have disabilities and are experiencing success in college and careers are often separated from potential protégés by great distances and face more complex transportation challenges than other individuals. Peer and mentor support can be provided via moderated discussion groups on the Internet (Burgstahler & Cronheim, 2001). Such activities, however, incur administrative time and costs. Efforts should be made to create supportive electronic communities that contribute to the self sufficiency of people with disabilities.
Accommodations vs. Universal Design: How can the creation of universal design of electronic and information technology be promoted? Designing inclusive environments that are accessible to everyone, with and without disabilities, minimizes the need for individual accommodations. Employing universal design approach to the development of technology devices, facilities, information resources, and services is a critical step towards ensuring that students with disabilities are provided with full access to programs and activities in the school, workplace, and community. Promoting the use of electronic and information technology standards established by the Federal government can help educational and employment entities move closer to this goal (Council on Disability, 2000). For example, distance learning program providers should be encouraged to employ universal design principles to make courses accessible to potential students with a wide variety of abilities and disabilities, including those who are blind and 
using speech output systems. A universal design approach to electronic and information technology selection and use in schools can help to reduce technology costs as well as facilitate the transfer of technology from secondary to postsecondary educational settings; promote cross-application and compatibility in education and workplace settings; reduce stigma, cultural and attitudinal barriers; and; more immediately and adapt to the changing assistive technology needs of students.
Work-based Learning: How can students with disabilities gain access to high tech work-based learning experiences to prepare them for the world of work? Internships, job shadows, service learning, and other work-based learning experiences can help students with disabilities gain job skills, explore accommodation options, and learn to use technology in work settings (Benz, Doren, & Yovanoff, 1998; Benz, Yovanoff, & Doren, 1997; Burgstahler, 2001; Luecking & Fabian, 2000). Such experiences can improve their chances for a successful school-to-work transition. Individuals who coordinate work experiences for high school and college students as well as participating employers need greater awareness of the potential contributions and accommodation needs, including assistive technology, of students with disabilities. Stakeholders should work together to assure that students have access to appropriate technology for employment settings and that students are included in the process in such a way that they gain the 
knowledge and self-advocacy skills they need for success in postsecondary education and careers.
Legislation and Policy: How can the maze of confusing and conflicting laws, rulings, and policy be simplified? Policy makers and advocates should explore ways to clarify existing legislation and use consistent terminology and standards They should also identify inconsistencies and gaps in legislation and policies regarding the selection, funding, and support of assistive technology (National Council on Disability, 2000). Dissemination of current laws, policies and resources should be tailored to the needs of various stakeholders and disseminated widely.
Research: How can we promote research that will improve our understanding of issues related to technology access for people with disabilities and its affect on post-school outcomes? Mainstream electronic and information technology as well as assistive technology is in a constant state of rapid development. We cannot assume that what was impossible yesterday for people with disabilities is not possible today. The National Science Foundation, the Department of Defense, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Education and other national and private funding agencies should be encouraged to support basic research and promising practices that employ technology to improve the postsecondary education and career outcomes for individuals with disabilities.
These challenges lead to the implications for practice and recommendations for research included in the next section.

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Federal legislation, demands by people with disabilities and their advocates that they be included in all life experiences, increased acceptance of diversity, improved medical care, and advancements in electronic and information technologies have contributed to higher expectations and improved preparation of students with disabilities for postsecondary academic programs and careers. As a result, young people with disabilities are better prepared to pursue higher education and ever-increasing numbers of students with disabilities are attending postsecondary academic institutions (Henderson, 1993). Legal mandates for computer access for students and employees with disabilities are not always reflected in practice, even within organizations that have developed access policies. Stakeholders are not fully aware of technology options, legal issues, and advocacy strategies. These stakeholders include people with disabilities, parents and mentors, government entities, paraprofessionals, policy makers and 
administrators, precollege and postsecondary educators, technical support staff, and employers. Options that can be considered in order to meet these challenges include the following.
-	Stakeholders should have access to training so that they will be able to design and select accessible facilities, computers and software; purchase appropriate assistive technology; and assure that students with disabilities use technology for their maximum benefit as they pursue academics, careers, and self-determined lives. 
-	Policies and procedures should be established at all academic levels to assure that accessibility is considered when electronic and information technology is procured.
-	Policies, procedures, training and support should be established at all educational levels to assure that Web and distance learning program developers make their electronic resources accessible to everyone.
-	Interagency collaboration on planning, funding, selecting, and supporting assistive technology should be fostered to assure continuous technology access and support as students with disabilities transition through academic levels and to employment.
-	Students with disabilities should be included at all stages of technology selection, support, and use so that they learn to self-advocate regarding their needs for accessible technology in the classroom and workplace. 
-	Students with disabilities at high school and college levels should participate in internships and other work-based learning experiences where they can practice using technology in work settings.
	Further research is needed to identify best practices that assure maximum benefits of technology access for students and employees with disabilities. It is recommended that future research in this area explore the following issues (National capacity building, 2001).
-	Longitudinal studies are needed to document the long range effectiveness of technology in helping students gain access to the general education curriculum and careers. Some research should focus on the value of early technology access and training for children with disabilities.
-	Research is needed to explore use of technology to increase success and independence of student with learning disabilities in precollege, college, and employment settings.
-	Research is needed to explore the progression and cross-application of technology through stages from elementary to middle school and secondary education and how technology can best be integrated into instruction and transition planning to achieve postsecondary school and employment outcomes.
-	Studies should explore the value of on-line peer and mentor support in increasing the academic and career success and the self-determination skills of individuals with disabilities.
-	Research is needed to study effective approaches to the development of student knowledge and self-advocacy skills in the area of technology. For example, effective participation in the IEP process and effective strategies for “negotiating” with teachers and employers regarding the use of technology is needed.
-	Studies should be undertaken to explore the relationship between degree of choice and degree of prescription or availability and effective use of technology for people with disabilities (i.e., the value of self-selection, self-determination as applied to technology).
-	Research is needed to study the extent to which the application of universal design principles reduces the need to provide students with special technology-related accommodations in precollege and postsecondary settings.
-	There is a need for baseline data on the present knowledge and skills of key stakeholders that can be used in planning and implementing technology training. Targeted groups should include students with disabilities, parents pre-service and inservice teachers, postsecondary instructors, educational support staff, service providers, and employers.
-	There is a need to study state policies regarding how general technology funding initiatives address the needs of students with disabilities; how state policy impacts funding and decision-making at the local level; and the extent to which it includes shared funding through interagency agreements and integration of service systems.
-	Research is needed regarding cost-effective uses of technology to help educators and others select devices and services that maximize opportunities for students with disabilities while minimizing costs and duplication of services.
-	Information is needed regarding effective training approaches for specific stakeholder groups. With regard to the training needs of students, age and interest-appropriate strategies are needed. The potential use of Internet technologies (e.g., electronic mail, Web pages, discussion lists, bulletin boards) to train stakeholders should be explored.
-	Exemplary practices need to be identified that increase collaboration among stakeholders to provide students with an integrated and seamless system of technology supports that facilitate transition to postsecondary and career settings. Information is needed about effective models that promote interagency collaboration in the transition process.

CONCLUSION

The use of electronic and information technology is ubiquitous – in education, employment, community service, and recreation. Providing full access to education, employment, and other life experiences for people with disabilities can be argued on ethical, economic, and legal grounds. Computers, the Internet, and other technologies have the potential to promote positive postsecondary and career outcomes for students with disabilities. However, this potential will not be realized unless stakeholders secure funding; become more knowledgeable about accessible electronic and information technologies and appropriate uses of these technologies; understand and comply with legal mandates; and develop appropriate policies and procedures that result in maximizing the independence, participation and productivity of students with disabilities as they move toward college, careers, and self-determined lives. Ultimately, making all the educational and employment opportunities accessible to people with disabilities will 
strengthen our economy and create a level the playing field for everyone. 

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Sheryl Burgstahler directs project DO-IT (Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking and Technology) and is Co-Director of AccessIT (The National Center on Accessible Information Technology in Education) at the University of Washington. DO-IT and AccessIT promote the use of accessible electronic and information technologies in educational settings. In addition, DO-IT works with individuals with disabilities to maximize their success in high tech careers and academic programs. Dr. Burgstahler has published articles and delivered presentations that focus on the full inclusion of individuals with disabilities in postsecondary education, distance learning, work-based learning, and electronic communities. She is the author or co-author of six books on using the Internet with pre-college students. Dr. Burgstahler has extensive experience teaching at the pre-college, community college, and university levels; in directing campus and nationwide projects to support technology access for people with disabilities; and addressing policy and management issues in this area.
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